Need to know Essay

Reading is a complex cognitive process of decoding symbols in order to construct or derive meaning (reading comprehension). It is a means of language, of communication, and of sharing information and ideas. Like all language, it is a complex interaction between the text and the reader which is shaped by the reader’s prior knowledge, experiences, attitude, and language community which is culturally and socially situated. The reading process requires continuous practice, development, and refinement. Readers use a variety of reading strategies to assist with decoding (to translate  symbols into sounds or visual representations of speech) and comprehension. Readers may use morpheme, semantics, syntax and context clues to identify the meaning of unknown words. Readers integrate the words they have read into their existing framework of knowledge or schema (schemata theory). Other types of reading are not speech based writing systems, such as music notation or pictograms. The common link is the interpretation of symbols to extract the meaning from the visual notations. The history of reading dates back to the invention of writing during the 4th millennium BC. Although reading print text is now an important way for the  general population to access information, this has not always been the case. 2 With some exceptions, only a small percentage of the population in many countries was considered literate before the Industrial Revolution. Some of the pre-modern societies with generally high literacy rates included classical Athens and the Islamic Caliphate. Scholars assume that reading aloud (Latin clare legere) was the more common practice in antiquity, and that reading silently (legere tacite or legere sibi) was unusual. In his Confessions, Saint Augustine remarks on Saint Ambrose’s unusual habit of reading silently in the 4th century AD. Currently most reading is either of the printed word from ink or toner on paper, such as in a book, magazine, newspaper, leaflet, or notebook, or of electronic displays, such as computer displays, television, mobile phones . Handwritten text may also be produced using a graphite pencil or a pen. Short texts may be written or painted on an object. Often the text relates to the object, such as an address on an envelope, product info on packaging, or text on a traffic or street sign. A slogan may be painted on a wall. A text may also be produced by arranging stones of a different color in a wall or road. Short texts like these are sometimes referred to as environmental print. 3 Sometimes text or images are in relief, with or without using a color contrast. Words or images can be carved in stone, wood, or metal; instructions can be printed in relief on the plastic housing of a home appliance, or a myriad of other examples. A requirement for reading is a good contrast between letters and background (depending on colors of letters and background, any pattern or image in the background, and lighting) and a suitable font size. In the case of a computer screen, not having to scroll horizontally is important. The field of visual word recognition studies how people read individual words. A key technique in studying how individuals read text is eye tracking. This has revealed that reading is performed as a series of eye fixations with saccades between them. Humans also do not appear to fixate on every word in a text, but instead fixate to some words while apparently filling in the missing information using context. This is possible because human languages show certain linguistic regularities. Reading is typically an individual activity, although on occasion a person will  read out loud for the benefit of other listeners. Reading aloud for one’s own use, for better comprehension, is a form of intrapersonal communication. Reading to young children is a recommended way to instill language and expression, and to 4 promote comprehension of text. Before the reintroduction of separated text in the late middle Ages, the ability to read silently was considered rather remarkable. 5 I. READING TECHNIQUES i. The purpose of this technique is to help you interpret the context of the reading. To sink in the information’s you need to know. You can also easily interpret those books you can read.  ii. You can learn more effective ways to speed up your reading skills and getting knowledge further. A. Have him read aloud. 1. This forces him to go slower, which gives him more time to process what he reads, which improves reading comprehension. Plus, he’s not only seeing the words, he’s hearing them, too. You can also take turns reading aloud. 2. To enhance fluency. Fluency is an essential part of successful reading. Fluency is based on automaticity (a reader’s ability to recognize words automatically). If children are to become both automatic and fluent readers, they need practice. Preparing to read a text aloud expressively provides children with the time and means to recognize words automatically and to read a text with a high percentage of accuracy. 6 3. To strengthen comprehension. When children use techniques for expressive oral reading, their comprehension of what they are reading dramatically increases. Since fluency is closely tied to comprehension, when children become smoother and more accurate readers they will also become more knowledgeable ones. 4. To develop critical reading skills. For children to read expressively, they must make conscious decisions about how to  read and what they should emphasize while they are reading so that they can effectively communicate both the surface and deeper meanings of a text. 5. To develop other important reading skills. When children prepare to read expressively, they will develop competence in grammar, memory, attention, sequencing, and understanding cause and effect. Reading well takes time, focus, and attention; and if children are going to read aloud well, they must give the requisite time, focus, and attention to prepare the text. As children prepare a text for oral reading, they will gain a greater  understanding of how grammatical and rhetorical structures (sentences, stanzas, and paragraphs) work and how the sequencing of words and ideas plays an important role in the delivery of meaning. 7 6. To build confidence. When children read with expressive skills, they will also develop more confidence in themselves as readers. No longer limited either to rapid word-calling or to stumbling over print, children will discover that, with practice and guidance, they can become more fluent, purposeful, and effective readers of the kinds of print material that had previously frustrated or befuddled them. B. Provide the right kinds of books. 1. Make sure your child gets lots of practice reading books that aren’t too hard. She should recognize at least 90 percent of the words without any help. Stopping any more often than that to figure out a word makes it tough for her to focus on the overall meaning of the story. 2. Almost any book can help build vocabulary and improve writing skills. It was advisable reading as many different genres and as many different books as possible. 3. Letting them choose their own books as soon as they start showing a preference for one over another. If a book is beyond a child’s reading  ability, it can be read to him or her now. 8 4. Finding out what students is interested in, and choose books that are related to his interests either an informational book or a novel in an area of specific interest. 5. Find picture books because of the subject or artwork, will be just right for a young reader , An interesting story in a beautiful, well-illustrated book offers the students an aesthetic experience to enjoy over and over again. 6. Pick books depending on your reading level, no matter what your age. C. Reread 1. If you don’t understand what you are reading, read over the sentence(s) again. Try reading the words out loud to yourself. If you still don’t understand something, ask a good reader nearby to explain the sentence(s) to you, or simply pick up a book that is easier to read and more appropriate to your reading level. 2. Feel free to use your finger as a pointer. It will keep your eyes focused on the line you are reading, improving your understanding. 3. To gain meaning from text and encourage reading comprehension, your child needs to read quickly and smoothly – a skill known as 9 fluency. Rereading familiar, simple books gives your child practice at decoding words quickly, so she/he’ll become more  fluent in her reading comprehension. 4. The more you read you the more you will remember them. Some of the experts suggest reading a chapter twice and then reading it again before a test. This technique is definitely effective; it is time-consuming, especially if you read slowly. D. Study Reading Vocabulary 1. As your student reads books, have her make a list of words that were difficult or unfamiliar in the book. Make flashcards of these words, spend some time together talking about the meanings and looking them up in the dictionary. Take turns showing the cards and guessing the words and meanings. As the student masters each word, remove it from the deck and put it in a place of honor. When the whole deck is mastered, celebrate with a special reward. E. Participate in Library Reading Programs 1. Most libraries offer organized reading programs during school breaks for students based on their school levels. Many of these 10 programs are themed and showcase some of the best works for children and young adults. a. The library staff may host activities based on books and have special events and field trips designed to help students explore the literature on a deeper level. Librarians are  usually happy to help your child and can help find ways to involve all levels of readers within an age group. F. Mind mapping 1. A mind map is a non-linear diagram that makes it easy to capture key thoughts and connections between ideas in a graphical / visual format. Starting with an idea, concept, or question in the center, you capture information by connecting key concepts and thoughts to the central idea. More detailed information related to these thoughts is then captured in branches that radiate out from the key concepts, away from the central idea. a. It is a useful technique to use while reading, since the  non-linear format allows you to view the entirety of your notes at a glance, then easily place new information in the appropriate branch or make connections between ideas. 11 It’s also a useful technique when solving problems or planning projects: start with a question or project description, then capture all ideas or necessary tasks in the appropriate branches. G. Scanning 1. A technique you often use when looking up a word in the telephone book or dictionary. You search for key words or ideas. In most cases, you know what you’re looking for, so you’re concentrating on finding a particular answer. Scanning involves moving your eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases. Scanning is also used when you first find a resource to determine whether it will answer your questions. Once you’ve scanned the document, you might go back and skim it. a. When scanning, look for the author’s use of organizers such as numbers, letters, steps, or the words, first, second, or next. Look for words that are bold faced, italics, or in a different font size, style, or color. 12 b. A process of quickly searching reading materials in order to locate specific bits of information. When scanning you  don’t start from the beginning and read to the end. H. Skimming 1. It is another technique whose purpose is to gain a quick overview in order to identify the main points. When skimming, you will often skip words, sentences, and paragraphs. a. Skimming is done at a speed three to four times faster than normal reading. People often skim when they have lots of material to read in a limited amount of time. Use skimming when you want to see if an article may be of interest in your research. b. The students may read the first and last paragraphs using headings, summarizes and other organizers as they move down the page or screen. You might read the title, subtitles, subheading, and illustrations. Consider reading the first sentence of each paragraph. This technique is useful when you’re seeking specific information rather than reading for comprehension. Skimming works well to find dates, names, and places. It might be used to review graphs, tables, and charts. 13 I. Make your own study guide 1. An extension of the concept of composing questions about your reading, this technique involves creating a set of possible test questions and answers and studying from those. Determine what your professor is likely to ask, compose questions, and write the  answers under them. Study from your study guide until you feel you know it well. Then create a version that omits the answers and see how well you do answering the questions. Those you miss are the ones you need to study more. J. Recite and teach material to others 1. Many experts swear by the effectiveness of reciting important parts of the reading orally[md]not reading aloud, but reciting section summaries you’ve composed yourself or questions and answers you’ve posed about the reading. Since you might find it awkward to recite aloud with people around, you may want to find a private place. In the same vein, teaching the material to others can dramatically boost your memory of it. Study groups are an excellent setting for doing so. If all else fails, consider teaching concepts to your dog or one of your stuffed animals. K. Keep reading 1. Try to read as much as you can on your free time. Reading will help you in lots of ways; your vocabulary will become larger and 14 more sophisticated and you will notice your grades change for the better in school. Have fun reading. II. FACTORS AFFECTING STUDENT READING i. The students nowadays are just refusing to read, Psychological studies have  shown that children who become adults who do not read very well are less successful in life than their peers. Of course we can break the reasons why students hate to read down to both medical and psychological factors: 15 A. Medical 1. They may have difficulty seeing the text and need glasses. Or they may have an organic brain disorder B. Psychological 1. They may be a developmental or learning disability such being mentally handicapped or they may have a learning disability such as dyslexia making it extremely difficult to read. a. Dyslexia is a very broad term defining a learning disability  that impairs a person’s fluency or comprehension accuracy in being able to read, [1] and which can manifest itself as a difficulty with phonological awareness, phonological decoding, processing speed, orthographic coding, auditory short-term memory, language skills/verbal comprehension, and/or rapid naming. C. Other psychological factors 1. They are simply distracted. In the past there were fewer distractions. Today there is TV, video games, and so on, which can take them away from reading. a. Nowadays there are internets that they can read far quicker, you do not have to read books. D. Lack of self-confidence 16 1. They may feel embarrassed to read out loud which is also related to self-esteem. Some kids will say they don’t like the sound of their voices. They may compare themselves to better readers and feel they are not as good. This may not even be the case. They may be just as good as the other readers. Only, they just fail to see it. E. Boredom 1. They get bored with reading and once the students lose interest in reading it is hard to get them back on board. Some of this boredom can be attributed to the dullness of the classroom reading assignments which have very little to do with the lives of the students who are reading them. F. Lack of practice 1. If the students are not motivated to read they will not practice. Motivation decreases with age. Even high school students who are good readers can feel like they are climbing a mountain when they have to read a chapter from a book. Without practice students will not develop the required skills and ease of reading. They will not read fast and later on in life this will also affect their university studies when enormous amount reading is requires in many disciplines. 17 a. The ability to read well and comprehend what is read is also crucial for adults in the work, environment, social  environment, and at home. III. TIPS ENCOURAGE THEM TO READ A. The first step to read to your child at an early age. 1. Many people have fond memories of their parents reading them bedtime stories, and reading to your child will help foster a love of words and reading. B. Fill your room with books 1. Kids who grow up with books all around them learn to think of books as friends, and allies in their pursuit of adventure and learning. a. The books like encyclopedias, dictionary, atlas, newspapers, magazines, almanac and etc. C. Be a good reading â€Å"role model†. 1. Let them see you reading, and how much you enjoy reading books  and magazines. a. Encourage joining you as you read; it can be your â€Å"bonding time† with them. D. Introduce them to books that match their interests and hobbies. 18 1. Show them how a good book can expand their knowledge in a particular area, and expand their horizons as well. E. Encourage them to find new books on their own to read. 1. While showing your books is a good way to build their interest level, a child who finds new books on their own can benefit from an increased sense of independence. 2. Let them to choose their own interest book. F. Get your child a library card. 1. Show them how a library can be a place of wonder and excitement, and can open up whole new worlds of learning to last a lifetime. And then put the library in your schedule, so you will be sure to visit frequently together. G. Setting limitations 1. Set limits on the amount of time your child spends in front of a television or video game console. a. There’s nothing wrong with watching television or playing video games, if you want to child to develop good language and learning skills, make sure they spend just as much time reading a good book. b. They might not like it now, but chances are they’ll thank you for it later in life. H. Leaving books 1. Leave books in the bathroom within easy reach of the toilet. You are quite likely to pick one up and read it. 19 2. Put books on the breakfast table. You are reading the backs of cereal boxes already. If you have a few books right in the kitchen, these will probably end up on the morning reading menu. a. If you don’t read, it’s unlikely your children will, either. Set a good example. I. Be comfortable 1. Therefore it is wise when you are comfortable reading general material to increase your reading speed as soon as possible. 2. Use a spreadsheet creatively. Try to read 15 to 20 minutes a day. Also, don’t judge a book by its cover. a. Spreadsheet is a grid that organizes data into columns and rows. Spreadsheets make it easy to display information, and people can insert formulas to work with the data. 3. To get the most comprehension, avoid lying down while reading. While reading in bed can help you relax and fall asleep, you can retain more information by having a good posture while reading. a. For example, sitting straight up and keeping your feet flat on the floor can increase your alertness. b. Make sure to choose a place that is comfortable for you for  the length of time you are going to read your book. This can be a couch, a chair or a bed. 20 Temperature is the most important factor to get comfortable reading. You can adjust the temperature the way you like it to be. If it’s too cold or too hot, then it will make getting comfortable to read a lot harder. The temperature is on you to decide. 4. Clothing. This is also another important factor to getting comfortable to read. You don’t want very tight or too lose clothes that make it not comfortable to read. a. Try wearing pajamas or just sweat pants and a t-shirt. Anything you are comfortable with. 5. A nice refreshing drink. This step is optional to you. It can depend on where and what time of day or year it is. Hot and warm drinks are great for those cold or cool nights or days. Cold drinks are perfect for those warm hot days and nights. 6. Book. The main thing you are getting ready to read. It can be a book you wanted to read for a long time or just to read for fun. Make sure it’s the book you really want to read. a. Bookmark. This is also optional but highly recommended to have with you when you need to get up and take a break or use the restroom and you don’t want to lose the page you are on. 21 7. Glasses and contacts. This step is for people with glasses and contacts. Make sure your glasses and contacts are clean enough for you to be able to read the words on the pages of the book. You don’t want dirt to make it hard for you to read. 8. Position is a key to get comfortable to read. You can adjust your position when you are reading to make it comfortable. It can be reading on your back while leaning back on something comfortable, sitting, standing, lying on your stomach, or lying on your side. It’s your choice of position you are comfortable with. a. But as much as possible do not lying on the bed because you will quickly fall asleep. b. Take a place that have more lights, IV. STUDY WELL BY READING 22 i. By reading you can gather information not even as faster as on the internets but you can learn more from reading. It can improve your vocabulary, grammar and enhancing your self-confidence especially when you speak. ii. In doing any works it is advisable to read, by this you can get the exactly meanings or knowledge you want and you will be having an advance thought from it. A. Get all materials. 1. If you want to study properly, don’t just bring your book. You will need a notebook and pencils, pens and highlighters. a. Highlights will help you pay more attention when reading rather than reading passively. B. Read it once. 1. During this, read for content. Try to understand the overall message or story. Put a * with a pencil when you read something that you think are important, rare, or stand out. If you want, just read a page at a time. C. Read it again. 1. Read over, and see if the points with the * are still that important. If they are, highlight them. There should be no more than 10 lines on a page that is highlighted. The highlighted points would help 23 you find important quotes or sentences when you need them later  on, or to study for exams. a. You can skip reading it again, and only have to read the highlighted important points. D. Take notes. 1. Pull out your notebook and summarize what you read. Try to make it as short and precise as possible. a. You can make jot notes or a paragraph, whichever is easier for you to read later on. E. Study. 1. You already read through the passage twice and used your own mind to rewrite and make notes, so it should be stuck in your head. But remember to review every 2-3 days to make sure you don’t forget. a. You can recite it with anyone as much as possible. b. Avoid any distractions. Don’t read for 2 minutes and text for 2 minutes. Your mind must be 100% on what you are reading. V. ADVANTAGES HAVING LIBRARY AT HOME i. The environment within the library itself highly motivates as there will be alot of focused people who will be down to serious business and thus you will feel motivated to do likewise. 24 ii. A proper library should have all the books you require thus you won’t have to spend much time looking for the books you require. A. You more likely to pick up ‘other’ books. 1. If you have a reasonably large collection of books at home, you and other members of your family will be exposed to newer  authors, genres and styles of writing. And if there is a reading culture at home it will help people pick up books belonging to diverse settings, eras and techniques. a. They are more likely to choose books addressing different issues. For instance, a young adult who only devours say a college romance can be exposed to comic fantasy and steam punk or even poetry. B. More chances of rereading a book 1. Chances of rereading or in other words revisiting what you just read are higher if you own the book and if the book is well within reach. So chances of pulling out a motivational book from your  personal library when you are feeling low are higher when the books are just stacked and kept away in your cupboard. a. Some people are in the habit of marking important lines, writing foot notes especially beside their reads so that they can glance at what they picked up from the book. This is a great practice and truly ensures that you make the most of 25 what you have read and pick up books from your personal collection. C. Discussing with friends 1. Once you to get into the groove you could have a monthly book reading and eventually kids will follow suit. If you have good  books at home they will be exposed to newer names, authors, genres, lessons all encouraging. D. Treasuring books 1. If you keep your library well, kids too will learn to treasure books and keep them well organized. They will eventually learn valuable lessons from the books they read and will learn to love their books too. 26 CONCLUSION: Reading can be a tool, to achieve success. it gives us a lot of information and ideas that we can use to our everyday life. By reading we can increase our self-confidence with this we can competitively speaking in any people. It can be improved or vocabularies, grammars, and know more languages. There lots of more if we read we can bring out the best on us, but the problem nowadays of the students they loss of attention in there reading habits, instead of reading to get the information they need they prefer to use the internet, we all know that all of our need ideas can’t be get in them. Are can be solve by using the techniques that are written ahead. Your friends and family can motivate you. As I’ve said it can be your â€Å"bonding time†. Reading is much fun as you think, if you just explore your imagination while you read. If you will be reading my work I’m sure you will learn more from it. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: 27 A special thank you goes to those who contributed to this paper: My sister Roby Jane Gayas valuable comments and sharing her knowledge. To my friends who directly contribute to the development of my research and a special thanks’ to my family supported on me all through the way. REFERENCES : Cornelissen PL, Kringelbach ML, Ellis AW, Whitney C, Holiday IE, Hansen PC (2009). Aleman, Andre. ed. â€Å"Activation of the left inferior frontal gyrus in the first 200 ms of reading: evidence from magnetoencephalography (MEG)†. PLoS ONE 4 (4): e5359. â€Å"NINDS Dyslexia Information Page†. National Institute for Neurological. Disorders and Stroke. Retrieved November 12, 2011. Sanabria Diaz G, Torres Mdel R, Iglesias J et al. (November 2009). â€Å"Changes in reading strategies in school-age children†. Span J Psychol 12 (2): 441– 53. PMID 19899646. Carver, Ronald P. (1990). Reading rate: a review of research and theory. Boston: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-162420-X. Legge GE, Mansfield JS, Chung ST (March 2001). â€Å"Psychophysics of reading. XX. Linking letter recognition to reading speed in central and peripheral vision†. Vision Research 41 (6): 725–43. doi:10. 1016/S0042-6989(00)00295-9. PMID 11248262. http://www. wikihow. com/Improve-Your-Reading-Skills. http://esl. about. com/od/englishreadingskills/a/readingskills. htm 28 http://www2. le. ac. uk/offices/ld/resources/study/reading http://www. pickthebrain. com/blog/improve-reading-comprehension/ http://www. wikihow. com/Category:Improving-Reading-Skills http://braindance. com/bdiread3. htm http://www. bookchums. com/blog-detail/about-books/advantages-of-a-wellstocked-home- library/Mjgx. html Mind Maps as Classroom Exercises John W. Budd The Journal of Economic Education , Vol. 35, No. 1 (Winter, 2004), pp. 35-46 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Article Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/30042572.

Charles Dickens Essay

One lesson we witness in A Kestrel for a Knave also aims to teach the pupils about facts. However this lesson is taught by Farthing who is caring and a more fatherly teacher and this is communicated by his name. Mr Farthing has used his kind personality to gain some respect from the boys in the class. Although the lesson has the same content as the lesson in Hard Times during the lesson it becomes obvious that Farthing’s teaching is different. He manages to involve Billy, who is normally quite shy and lacking motivation, positively in the lesson. Farthing teaches in a more relaxed way and lets the lesson flow as well as welcoming input from the boys. He encourages Billy to participate and makes him feel special as he has something interesting to share. Farthing lets Billy’s thought tumble out and does not cut him short. Billy tells all about his bird, which he has raised and trained, and Farthing seems genuinely interested † ‘Jesses, how do you spell that?’ † He writes words on the board, allowing the whole class to learn about Billy’s unusual talent. Billy becomes the teacher for a while and as Farthing is not controlling like Gradgrind he allows this to happen. The lesson becomes full of individuality as Billy shares his unusual hobby and his confidence grows. This would never have happened in a lesson taught by Gradgrind, he would never encourage a pupil to take over his position and would think a pastime like Billy’s ridiculous. The way in which Farthing nurtures Billy’s thoughts reflect the way in which Billy has nurtured Kes. The time and devotion that Billy has shown the bird is matched, although on a smaller level, by the way Farthing waits for Billy to talk and persist to question him gently as if he knows Billy has a lot to share. Another contrast between the two schools is the way in which Billy and his classmates’ behaviour changes depending on the teacher, whereas Gradgrind’s pupils are always the same. The different methods of teaching present at Billy’s school become obvious when the PE teacher Sugden is introduced. Sugden is a bully and again Hines has highlighted the teacher’s personality with his name, as Sugden is a thug. Billy dislikes PE and does not have a PE kit, as his family cannot afford to buy him one. He arrives late to the lesson as he has been talking to Farthing. Instead of discreetly giving him a kit to wear Sugden mocks Billy in front of the other boys. The way in which Billy is treated provokes him to answer back and be cheeky. Sugden’s verbal bullying brings out the negative aspects of Billy’s personality. Not only does Sugden verbally bully his pupils but as a big man he does not hesitate to physically abuse them too. â€Å"He hit Billy twice with the ball, holding it between both hands as though he was murdering him with a boulder.† The whole lesson is a bullying game for Sugden. There is an absence of skills taught and so the lesson consists of a game of football in which Sugden is the captain of one of the teams as well as being the referee. He bullies the opposing team as well as his own teammates if they make mistakes. His attitude is immature and shows no sportsmanship or fairness, two lessons which should always be reinforced in PE lessons. His negative attitude has a clear affect on the boys, who leave the lesson cold and uninspired. The education system presented by Charles Dickens is extreme and unnecessarily harsh. However the title Hard Times makes it seem like Dickens is writing honestly about a time which lead to harsh methods of education. He highlights the naivety of the people as now teaching methods have improved and young people are encouraged to be themselves and achieve the best that they can. Satire is used by Dickens to emphasize the mistakes of the system. Charles Dickens could of attended a school like the one in Hard Times and so I think he aims to make the problems obvious to people who otherwise might not notice the wrongs in society. Barry Hines also writes the truth about the education system in his era and I think he also aims to highlight the incorrectness of the organization. However Barry Hines writes more realistically as the book is more recent and therefore easier to relate to. Both authors present systems, which now seem very wrong but at the time they were thought of as acceptable. Both books probably contain memories of the authors’ school days and particularly in A Kestrel for a Knave the scenes seem very believable. I could conclude that neither system would be justifiable now but in their time the schools seemed fair.

A Definition Of Social Justice

A Definition Of Social Justice Before considering social justice, it is important to understand why it matters. Social justice is a powerful idea in society today, buts its origins and meanings are partially unclear. There is perhaps little if any doubt about the significance of this question among people in poor and rich countries. The following research in regard to what I am going to discuss within this essay is looked upon at the concept of justice in regard to the issues and the impact of justice as of reducing the balance between rich and poor. Subsequently the overall concept of justice will appeal in my contention about fairness. As this meaning isnt controvertible it will demonstrate that patterns which are indecencies as embodied in the developing countries demanding another way to deal with justice between the rich and poor nations. However, in today’s gig economy this is not the case with reference to case studies it enables to try bringing out the possibilities and limitations of social justice as of what can be achieved to make it a better outcome. It also talks about the conventions and principles as stated as to what the society is doing to protect the individuals that are of in need of supporting their conditions. It even defines detailed definitions as opposed to every definition being merely different as from the perspective of the person in rich and poor countries such as social justice and fairness each word described having its own meaning. However, no one can deny the gap between rich and poor, but it is becoming progressively wider. Throughout the essay I even have concluded 1 context of justice distributive which is to do with fairness but in contrast it is said to be successful but is still being criticized. It is even argued that social justice is perceived as protecting individuals ensuring that they are treated fairly. The definition stated by Susan Torres offers a useful starting point for explaining the key individual elements of each word as opposed to the context within this definition under international law. As stated social justice is the key fundamental in valuing of ‘fairness and equity in resources, rights and treatment for marginalized individuals and groups of people, who do not share equal power in society because of their immigration, racial, ethnic, age, socio economic, religious heritage, physical ability, or sexual orientation status groups’ . As prior to clearly being a member of society, each member deserves to have all the same rights and opportunities and fairness within because the key components and aspects of social justice are entirely to do with society fairness. Therefore, it concludes to be the very essence of all great spiritual teachings throughout the society and without justice they cannot be any greater justice. To an extent it is even basically trying to create a society so that all members can lead fulfilling lives and have access to all the institutions prior to helping members of society realize potential in the community. Besides that, the meaning of justice is pretty well captured in a more familiar term, because social justice takes the core idea of justice as fairness and fairness often has been used with regards to an ability to judge without reference to ones feelings or interests and it can be heavily debated and is defined differently depending on whether it is from the perspective of the rich or poor. The law is moderately being a characteristic instrument as it can both increase and decrease legal aid. A particular example of the law diminishing legal aid is Equality Act 2010 which legally protects individuals from segregation in the work environment and wider society. However, they are numerous occurrences where this isnt the case in the law protecting individuals against discrimination. However, individuals are still being segregated example women may not get a job position due to becoming a pregnant mother and after that taking a paid leave. Besides that, additionally there is still a compensation pay gap amongst men and women and essentially, they should have right to equal pay. It is very common as to the gender pay gap being a potential topic of interest as of it being reduced within the UK it is still suggested it is still in favor for men. However as indicated over the UK it is said to be that men earn more than ladies as indicated by the national statistics and therefore the equality act must work on the grounds claiming that in April 2017, the sex pay hole for full time representatives diminished to 9.1% as in 1997 it was 17.4% as indicated by ONS. Although over time it has decreased, it is yet not socially on the grounds that people arent dealt with similarly and are contrarily negatively discriminated till day. In R (SG) v Secretary of state for work and pensions (2015) UKSC 16, (2015) 1 WLR 1449, the inquiry was whether the advantage cap was justifiable. The cap limits total of household income from welfare benefits to a fixed sum, irrespective of the subsistence needs of the family. The parties come to terms that it was by implication prejudicial against women. Lady Hale stated that what must be considered is whether the benefit cap applies to lone parents and it can be justified independently of its discriminatory effects. In considering that, Lady Hale concluded that the cap will deprive children of their basic needs which cannot be in their best interests and therefore the indirect sex discrimination inherent in the cap’s implementation is not a proportionate way of achieving its aims. Therefore, the most unfavorably influenced were single guardians with at least 3 or more children living in generally costly leased accommodation. They were adversely influenced as of the fact tha t they were less likely to get away from the impact of the cap and by moving to a new house and getting a job. Overwhelmingly these lone guardians were women and statistics demonstrated that 90% of single guardians are women in the UK. It is even seen that agreements representing those working in the gig economy are an example of exploitative new work patterns, and authoritative commitments in the common law. And sense they can never longer convey justice as shown by Uber and Deliveroo. These two organizations could control business law to profit them, Uber workers are categorized as independently employed working in a gig economy in view of adaptable work hours as they have little to none business security or assurance. Looking at the discussion of social justice in relation to distributive justice in a national and international context, distributive Justice is more concerned with the fair allocations of resources among diverse members of a community. The principles in regards to this are normative principles designed to allocate goods in limited supply relative to demand. The principles vary in what goods are subject to distribution income, wealth, opportunities and on the nature of subjects of the distribution and on the basis the goods distributed. One of the simplest principles of distributive justice is that of strict or radical equality. The principle even says that every person should have the same level of goods and services .However distributive justice is therefore best thought of as providing moral guidance for the political processes and structures that affect the distribution of benefits and burdens in societies. Beyond that the UN often refers poverty as a vicious cycle made up of a r ange of factors associated making it hard to overcome. As opposed to many societies are preventing individuals from enjoying their rights simply either as to who there are or cannot afford. Discriminatory laws, policies and practices may suggest that these groups are even denied the right to high standard of health, to work and adequate housing. Within case study the concept of social justice can have an impact as the laws can affect the opportunities of the freedom of citizens. The laws likewise control the delivery and influence whether assets e.g. education, healthcare and housing are or are not accessible to people based on their racial, ethnic, to age, socio economic, religious, heritage physical ability, or sexual orientation . To an extent at a point when laws discriminate people based on their enrolment to a specific social gathering, they have a substantial impact not just on who but on how people can embody and perform their personality, however likewise they can influence whether they can get to welfare benefits that addresses converging types of poverty. Besides that, what comes into place also is referred with refugees and they are more to do with an individual being given security of protection. Therefore, asylum seekers become a refugee when the immigration authority decides on the outcome whether the individual fits within the international definition of a refugee. Besides this the international law states that for an individual to become a refugee the individual clearly needs to have met the criteria for the refugee status as stated by the article convention 1951. International and European law on a refugee basis is an example of the law being socially just and a measure of reducing balance between the rich and poor claiming the law is giving asylum seekers and refugees the chance to a superior life by enabling them to dwell in their country of origin, if their life is in danger in their country of origin. The Dublin Regulation is one measure of the European law which does this. Article 6(4) of regulation (EU) No604/2013 expresses that a part state in which an unaccompanied child has held up a case for asylum, the best interests of a child must be protected. The law instantly promotes social justice because it is taken account of the prosperity and the best interests of the child into thought before anything else. Within the 1951 convention Article 31 even states that refugees are secured against penalties for reason of illegal entry. The law encompasses human rights and it even promotes social justice and sustainability since it ensures that individuals who are in danger or at risk by aiding them to move to a safe country. Furthermore, Whether the applicant the home countries are ‘safe’ it can be assessed by examining the definition in Annex I of the Procedures Directive, which stipulates that taking into account: the legal situation of a country, the application of the law within a democratic system and the general political circumstances†¦there is generally and consistently no persecution†¦, no torture or inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment and no threat by reason of indiscriminate violence in situations of international or internal armed conflict . Although the 1951 article convention sets out an obligation on states to treat refugees without discrimination in view of their nation of origin , the asylum procedures directive and its recast have enabled the EU nations to partition asylum seekers into various categories, with nationals of certain third nations justifying less favorable procedural treatment than others. This may raise basic strains with obligation to regard of the convention as the foundation of refugee protection in the EU4 and to refrain any elucidation of the EU refuge acquits which would undermine it. According to lady hale speech case study is entirely linked as many infection diseases are killing millions of people each year of whom are in the developing world. The leading cases of illnesses and deaths are in Africa, Asia and south America regions that accounts for the world’s population which are HIV/AIDS, The crisis of aids has especially drawn the attention with respect to the way that numerous number of people in the developing world dont appear to get to the medications that are expected to treat disease or alleviate suffering. Consistently many more people are killed due to the aids in this developing society. The situations behind this is because of the lack of access to essential medicines being manifold, however in many cases high cost of medications is particular barrier to required medicines or treatments. As from knowing excessively the drug prices are often due to strong intellectual property protection. Therefore, the governments within the developing countr ies try and attempt to bring the cost of the medicines down prior to having come under pressure from industrialized countries and the multinational pharmaceutical industry. As to joining WTO it equals to lower tariffs meaning more money for the owner of the medicines. In terms of this the world trade organization partially sets out standards for the overall protection of intellectual property, including patents for pharmaceuticals, which has come under criticism because of the effects that increased levels of patent protection will have on drug prices . Several number of new medicines are vital for the survival of millions they are already too costly for most people in poor countries either because the medicines are unaffordable, have become ineffective due to resistance, or are not sufficiently adapted to specific local conditions and constraints The law as of opposed does not deliver a socially just outcome as of those in a less economically developed nations and wont have the capacity to afford the cost of medicines by owners who have a monopoly because of licenses required by trips. Nonetheless, it does protect individuals property rights so individuals cant copyright their work so nobody else can assume the acknowledgement for it without the owner’s consent. From this, one could come to a conclusion that the Doha Declaration takes a large step toward ensuring that intellectual property protection serves the public interest and lays out the options countries have available when prices of existing patented drugs are too high for their populations .Also that the law protects property more than it does therefore people’s lives are wasted due to patent laws being practiced. It can even be said that law undermines social justice and that law will never be socially just as opposed to the current system of the intellectual property. However as to considering a different context such as human rights, the law still protects people as much as it possibly can as to a certain extent where these laws will allow citizens to flee their country if they feel they are being persecuted. The UK legislation in the 1940s recognized rights to universal free education up to age14.This helped poorer children have free access to schools. The underlying principle was social justice as to those not being able to look after themselves should be looked after by the community from the cradle to the grave. Besides that, in relation to this what emerged in 1942 was a Beveridge report which was a method of reducing the balance between rich and poor as the rich paid into scheme to help the poor. This is an example of the law from the cradle to the grave as to the whole community looking after those in need of help. Referring to lady hale speech from the comments they are ought to be applauded as she has an obligation to secure the task and access the law in the UK. However, she considers it to be her obligation to alert those along these lines and if not, it would be ethically off-base. I feel that the access to justice is a vital issue and if these progressions imply then those with no capital cant challenge those with huge money saves the suggestions for us as a general public are appalling. However, take cases of evidence against huge pharmaceutical organizations for instance without legal aid are currently now impossible. Besides that, there have been hi profile cases of absurdity, for example, the Maxwell Brothers when all is said and done in the arrangement of legal aid it has prompted fairness and equivalent access. In the event the judges say nothing in regard to the approaches about the policies it will therefore destroy natural justice issues. I would recommend that they have failed t he promise they took towards the beginning of their profession and should hang their heads in disgrace. The main thing is that it is basic if they criticize such plans wherever they originate from and are not divided in their complaints. This lady’s balance is a careful critique to me as an indication of her exceptional honesty and faith in the law and access to it for all. I applaud her activities and expectation it causes a genuine verbal confrontation. Overall each case study raises significant questions about the balance between rich and poor in terms of advantages and disadvantages. Besides that, the law does have an important part in promoting social justice, but it is limited. Numerous people would state that the law adds to the realization of a more socially and sustainable society because of human rights and legislation and international and European law, however this isnt altogether true. Whilst the law is encompassing human rights it has promoted social justice in past when incorporated but it isnt always generally for the underprivileged. Property law is a key example of how the law doesnt change the harmony amongst rich and poor rather it builds it. The conception of social justice refers more broadly to fairness and equality, but it additionally speaks to a worldwide structure for human rights, recognition and dignity, however patent laws are utilized for instance peoples dignity and human rights are not regarded. Also crediting individuals for their work is considered more vital than saving a life, therefore it isnt altogether. Just, it can be esteemed ethically wrong while social justice is tied in with being ethically right and moral. Further on in regard to the laws having an impact on these circumstances changes have been implemented but it doesnt have much of a big impact as to balance. Beyond that referring to lady hale speech every context in social justice has a different meaning in poor and rich countries because of the world we live in and prior to the difficulties faced. However, at a point we understand justice drives from ensuring that all individuals and countries have equal opportunities to exercise their talents and be rewarded for their efforts. Also, as to the 1951 conventions being in place it helps provide a good framework within which decisions can be made and it can at least help with decisions and help individuals.

Project Finance, Accounting and Control Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Project Finance, Accounting and Control - Essay Example Weaknesses of the Annual Budget The approach of annual budgeting, with the inclusion of multi variables and numerous factors, emerge as a complex process. Consequently, the approach involves many advantages along with few major drawbacks. For instance, there are many shortcomings in the annual budget preparation irrespective to different budgeting approaches. The inherited weaknesses which can be by far identified in the annual budget are discussed below: Weak Forecasting Capabilities The most critical step in the budgeting process is related to the forecasting capabilities regarding the financial resources that will be available in the future course of business operations. Immense technical expertises are required in order to forecast the revenue collection and expenses with high level of accuracy (Martinez-Vazquez, 1997). The level at which the forecasting will be made is a decisive consideration. To initiate the process of budget forecasting there are certain considerations that s hould be adhered by the executors, i.e. industry-level forecasting, corporate forecasting, product forecasting and product-line forecasting. During the process of budget forecasting, inclusion of all these factors are not considered to be complex, but in turn evolves as a time-consuming process. Consequently, the lack of forecasting capabilities makes the budget risky in executing. In addition to that, different types of problems occur that make the budget restructuring essential and therefore increases the cost (Mentzer & Gomes, n.d.). Insufficient Budget Control of Certain Funds There is lack of control over the budget in regard to certain funds that are variable in nature depending upon the period of operation. The budgeting officer needs to contact each department and analyze the debit and credits of the department in order to find out the funds’ leverage upon the department. Although incorporating this intensive technique, the budget does not have sufficient control over certain funds (New York University, 2007). These funds vary in nature and controlling them within the budgeting process limits is somewhat impossible. This tends to change the overall financial funding. Inclusively, the fund might be internal or external. Pulling the funds for the specified fund option is often misinterpreted as budgeting, which ultimately results to ineffective budget planning. Therefore, the overall planning needs to be re-planed due to the ineffective balance of the funds in the budget. Contextually, the level of control in the fund management in budgeting becomes difficult while drafting the budget for an accounting period (Flexstudy, n.d.). Profitability Index In order to forecast the profitability index, an estimation of the cost of capital is required. But this can not provide the corrective decision when applied to compute mutually exclusive projects (Peterson-Drake, n.d.). The decision may be incorrect while computing and this will result in failure of the budget of the project. The budget model is not capable of determining the profitability index to ensure the effectiveness of the financial status of the company

The U.S. Supreme Court Powers Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The U.S. Supreme Court Powers - Research Paper Example Subject-matter jurisdiction refers to authority over the facts and law involved in a particular case based on a specific subject matter such as divorce or bankruptcy. Subject-matter jurisdiction limits the authority of the court within matters directly relating to the subject matter (Garner, 2006). This is to say, therefore, that a divorce court may not hear cases involving bankruptcy. Information retrieved from the Harvard Law Review indicates, â€Å"Lack of subject matter cannot be waived.† (Cushman, 1998, p 89) Any decision from a court that lacks subject matter jurisdiction over a given case is invalid to that extent. Personal Jurisdiction By granting personal jurisdiction, the Supreme Court confers authority over the parties involved in a specific case. The court therefore gains jurisdiction based on the individuals involved in the case. Sources indicate that the personal jurisdiction, as a legal concept, draws from the traditional concept that a King exercised his author ity within his domain and not outside the kingdom. Every state in the US has personal jurisdiction over its citizens. Likewise, all courts within the state can exercise authority over citizens. The constitution unequivocally states that consent, power, and notice are the three elemental principles of personal jurisdiction that restrain the authority of courts to bind property or individuals to their decisions.

Insurance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Insurance - Essay Example The insurance system today is so much integrated in our society that life without an insurance plan looks impossible. The insurance companies have spread their roots and are insuring everything and anything. There are several types of insurances such as life insurance where the customers pay to an insurance company as its saving account to keep its money and give it back when the family of the insurer needs it. A life insurance policy has different clauses and agreements varying from a company to company. Other insurances include health insurance which is a very common concept in the USA as the health facility is very expensive and is not provided by the government. The people in the USA rely mainly on their health insurance plans for their treatments. Health insurance also has many packages and they vary from companies to customers need. Car insurance is when an insurance company pays for your car repair in case of an accident. It seems like that the insurance companies are entities which are there to help people, but in the realty, this industry is making very high profits as they take your dollars as profits and gives you your money in cents. Insurance companies have established their grounds despite facing many problems. The major controversy about insurance companies is coming from the religious segment of the society as all the three main religions Christianity, Islam and Judaism are against insurance. As in Christian priest say that having insurance indicates the lack of faith in god, in Islam, the concept of interest is forbidden so insurance to the Muslim world is not a culture that they should absorb in, and in Judaism, the rabbi says that it is an avoidance of god will. Even after barriers, the insurance companies have reached to new heights in making profits. Insurance companies are very technical in nature as their clauses and contracts are very difficult to understand. The concept of "uberrimae fidei" is a Latin word for 'utmost good faith'. Under this term, the applicants are required to tell the company everything which might cause their decision to change. Every applicant has to disclose the details of the material belonging and also the circumstances and the future expectation of the applicant. The concept is essential as the insurance business is done on the basis of trust. The applicant should have enough money to buy an insurance policy - the payment of insurance is taken on installment basis - it varies from cases to cases. Insurance is an investment that you make in order to get good returns on it. The chance of profitability is only present if there is mutual faith and believes between the client and the investment company. The insurance contracts have significance important because if the deal doesn't work the case goes into court so the two parties should be aware of their treaty in the case of disclosure. "To point out all types of disclosure is not only a difficult task but also to an extent futile, even though such acquisition of types could immensely help in compiling the information for the judges and lawyers to seek an analogy in their respective cases in front of them. However, when one understands the basic notion of burden of disclosure then the nature and types can

Poetry Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Poetry - Assignment Example The romantic poets were at the heart of the movement, where they got inspired by desire for liberty, and denounced exploitation of the poor. They highly placed emphasis on the importance of every individual and emphasized that ideals should be followed instead of the rules and conventions that were imposed. The romantics poets were known for renouncing rationalism associated with the enlightment era and stressing on the importance of individuals expressing authentic feelings. They used poetry to inform and inspire for the change of the society (Tomain, 1053). Modernist poets are poets of the twentieth and twenty first century. The modernist poets are known for strong emphasis on use of imagery and emotional content. The poetry also uses a lot of rhyming and includes modern movements like beat poetry. They experiment a lot with new mode of expression and have many ways of expressing ideas. Modernist poets also use new and a wide range of themes and subjects compared to the traditional poetry that had limited subjects (Tomain

Case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 36

Case study - Essay Example To the majority, what was just a concept and dream never come true had been turned into reality. In order to secure the future of the product in America, the marketing team had to address several issues with a high level of precision. Target population was one of the main issues to be addressed. Consideration of the target population, in this case, is the young population. It was based on the specs of the vehicle as the New Beetle is economical, stylish, and affordable (Rossman, 2011). The other key issue was to increase the sales volume of the brand. The first step towards improvement of the sales lackluster performance was to hire a new advertising agent. The new advertising agent would help in making the German piece of engineering attractive again (Kiley, 2002). Several challenges were faced in an attempt to improve the number of cars on the streets of America. Dealing with the competitors was one of the challenges. Test and preference vary a great deal in America. Attaining the required target demands specialty or rather focusing on a specific market niche. The other challenge was to keep up with the Americas ever-changing taste. The young population of America needs constant change and improvement of the vehicle with time. They easily get bored of a particular product after using it for some time. In conclusion, the marketing team in conjunction with the German engineers has been doing a good job regarding manufacturing and maintaining sales of the brand. Customer satisfaction for a long period comes at a price, and the Volkswagen team has been doing it. Introduction of other models that meets the customers requirements has also helped in maintaining the

As a condition of voting, should people be required to demonstrate Essay

As a condition of voting, should people be required to demonstrate that they have an adequate understanding of how the American government works Why or Why not - Essay Example Voting is a high stalk game because wrong voting can lead to unjust wars, calamitous economic policies and needless wars. That is why voters should make the right decision while voting based on sound evidence that will lead to best policing and promote the common good rather than on self-interest. Voting is not a duty for everyone because some people vote based on their self-interest, while others are politically incompetent, and others are ignorant. If this kind of people votes then they owe it to the other citizens both voters and no-voters. There is nothing wrong by being ignorant in politics, misinformed or coming up with particular political belief so long as you do not impose your views on people by voting (Brennan, 2012). Research done indicate that most America voters are clueless on issues concerning political. If asked question on political, for instance, if they prefer diplomacy to military action in solving international conflict. Most lack ideas on what to say; others tend to refer to what they hard on television. If asked why they prefer one candidate to the others, they answer ignorantly and just say that they just like the way that person talks. If an individual cannot discuss rationally on foreign issues, name the staple of liberal ideology, or change their thoughts in response to information they are not able to remember. Then that people is better if he does not vote. Most voters vote based on partisan voting, which in most cases they inherit from their parents. Those who vote genuinely based on of facts are very few. Survey done in the 2000 and 2004 elections suggest that most voters behave politically just like voter of the 1950s. However, some scholars think that their colleagues have set the bar high of what is expected of the voters. Voting is an ethical issue and how we vote matters a lot. In our voting, we can create a better government or a worse one and

Masculinity and Violence in Fight Club and Drowning Tucson Essay

Masculinity and Violence in Fight Club and Drowning Tucson - Essay Example However, when â€Å"a generation of men† is raised by women, there is no â€Å"male example† (Palahniuk 50) to follow and males only have that urge for liberalization and the need to ascertain their masculinity. One can see that the Tyler in Fight Club is the real macho man who tries to struggle away from the feminized Narrator, or, in other words, Tyler is the real male self of the Narrator. In fact, what Palahniuk points out and what the reader feels is that real masculinity involves surplus aggressiveness and sexual and emotional desires. In the real society, most males are forced to employ surplus repression to look civilized. Thus, there are institutions of male bonding which offer them a way to unleash this hidden aggression in the safest possible way. They engage in fist fight in such institutions and enjoy a sense of power. In the novel, the Narrator is a person who has lost his sense of manhood. He does not have a name, lives alone, and is unable to make health y relations with others. This extreme pain and alienation makes the real man in him struggle away and become Tyler who wants to become the leader of the â€Å"space monkeys† (Palahniuk 132).... The more comfortable the Narrator becomes with Marla, the more detached he gets with the destructive plans made by Tyler. Finally, by the time he admits he likes her, the Narrator is in total contradiction with Tyler, and eliminates him (Palahniuk 15). However, the men who are still isolated continue demanding the return of the anarchic Tyler. At least the Narrator realizes Marla is not the reason behind anarchy. Thus, one can see that there are various factors Palahniuk tries to point out as the reasons behind violence. The first one is the lack of role models of maleness for the new generation which is often brought up in a feminized society. The feminist era took away everything that is good as the virtues of femaleness and men of the post-feminist period were left with nothing more than mere ambiguity regarding masculinity and parenting (Palahniuk 141). The second important factor is the ‘homophobia’ developed by men in a patriarchal society. It is admitted facts tha t many hate crimes occur as a result of doubts over sexual orientation. In Fight Club, the Narrator gives Angel Face a severe beating to see that his beauty is reduced because the Narrator hates the favoritism Tayler shows towards him. (Palahniuk 96) Evidently, males have their own ways of measuring masculinity. To illustrate, in Fight Club, it is seen that the ability to conquer a woman is an important aspect of deciding ones maleness. As a result, there is a kind of rift between males that arises out of this competition to win women, and in the novel, there is a great degree of tension between Tayler and the Narrator in this regard. (Palahniuk 113) Thus, it becomes evident that men’s lives are structured around aggressiveness and power relations. The highly phallic notion of masculinity

Little Women by Louisa May Alcott Essay Example for Free

Little Women by Louisa May Alcott Essay Little Women, written by Louisa May Alcott, is a novel based on a family of four girls, Margaret Meg March, Josephine Jo March, Beth March, and Amy March, and of their family values. Little Women demonstrates strong events based on several family values. The story of the March family is set in New England during the civil war. Throughout this point in time the little women are to survive with out a father figure, as their father has gone to fight in the war. Over long periods of time, the four March sisters had to face the fact that they were very poor and could not receive every thing that they wished for. As the March family stayed home awaiting the return of their father, they were very lucky to receive the fatherly support from an old, wealthy neighbour, Mr Laurence. Overtime the girls formed a tight bond with Mr Laurence and his grandson Laurie. As the March family continues through the hard times in life, they are blessed by the friendship of family and friends. In the Novel the four sisters show that they are very unselfish and are capable of sharing what little things they have with others. Even though the girls realise (Amy especially) that they are suffering poverty and are not able to receive everything that they wish, they are very grateful for what they have. The March sisters tend not to make a fuss mainly because whilst their father is away life gets tough with only a mother figure around. Not far away from here lies a poor old woman with a little new born baby. Six children are huddled into one bed to keep from freezing, for they have no fire. There is nothing to eat over there; and the oldest boy came to tell me they were suffering hunger and cold. My girls, will you give them your breakfast as a Christmas present? pg 20 In the chapter A merry Christmas this here is a great example of how generous the March family is even though the have so little themselves. The girls were very disappointed to give their food away but knew that there was a family suffering severely without any food, so they decided to the right thing. In Little women the four March sisters show loyalty by looking out for each other. Through the hardest times in life the girls manage to stick by each other and along the way on their journey they learn from their mistakes. Meg, Jo, Beth and Amy are not your everyday type of sisters who may fight a lot with one another. The girls infrequently have fights because they are so alike, they are so kind to one another and share anything they have for that is all that they do have. I let the sun go down on my anger; I wouldnt forgive her, and today, if it hadnt been for Laurie it might have been too late! How could I be so wicked? said Jo half aloud, as she leaned over her sister, softly stroking the wet hair scattered on the pillow. As if she heard, Amy opened her eyes, and held out her arms, with a smile that went straight to Jos heart. Page 115. Even though the girls make mistakes they learn from them and are persistent never to make that same mistake again. Through out the novel looking out for each other is a true family value and by doing this the girls manage through life a lot easier. Life becomes more interesting when family and friends are together. Its not until later on in life when the March girls realise that their next door neighbours are not close and that they ought to become neighbourly with one another. It is here in the novel where all the sisters begin to loosen up and enjoy the new company of the Laurence boy. At first the girls are a bit timid because they are embarrassed by the fact that they are so much poorer to Laurie, but after first impressions the girls really begin to bond with Laurie and they form a tight friendship. We are not strangers, we are neighbours, and you neednt think youd be a bother. We want to know you, and Ive been trying to do this ever so long. Page 70.Through the novel it is important to be able to have the love and support of friends and family so that it makes life easier through the difficult and depressing patches. In conclusion Marmee only wants best for her girls, but in her eyes this does not mean the wealthiest man that the girls can get their hands on this means, happiness and security from the one they tend to spend their rest of their lives with. Money is a needful and precious thing,-and, when well used, a noble thing,-but I never want you to think it is the first or only prize to strive for. Id rather see you poor mens wives, if you were happy, beloved, contented, than queens on thrones, without self- respect and peace. If along the way the girls did not have one another and there values then Meg, Jo, Beth and Amy would struggle more then what they already do. Through out the novel family values are very important and are expressed in many ways, not only through family but close friends too. The March sisters go through life with the love and support of each other and share an amazing journey.

The Concept of Human Rights Essay Example for Free

The Concept of Human Rights Essay During the Second World War, the most horrific massacre took place; committed by the Nazi regime, killing millions of innocent people. The world could not believe this inhuman event occurred. â€Å"They felt like a war could no longer be used as an excuse to commit crimes against humanity†. (unac. org) it was a decision that was made across universal lines that the infringement of Human Right will no longer be accepted, and we will unite as one to establish a declaration of Human Rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was created and signed on December 10, 1948, there was legislatives from 48 countries who came together at the United Nations in Paris who believed in the value and respect for human life. (unac. org) After several drafts and much debate, the final version of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) emerged. The (UDHR) was a list of primary privileges that the worldwide group decided were equal and just for all humans. (unac. rg) The list of human rights consisted of six categories such as Political Rights, the right to vote, the right to citizenship and to participate in government. Liberty Rights: the right to freedom of opinion and expression; Equality Rights: the right to be free from discrimination; Economic Rights: the right to fair wages and safe working conditions; Social Rights: the right to education and to adequate health care; Security Rights: protect people against crimes such as murder, massacre, torture, and rape. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) Human rights is definitely NOT a static concept, it’s a dynamic concept, because counties, people and circumstances change and because was establish different values over time. For example the issues on gay rights, which were not and concern in 1948 as it is now that more gays are coming out and demanding the same right as everyone else regard marriage and equality. Also, now global warming and the environment is an issue among many counties there is a demand for the right to a clean environment. According Professor Philip Alston, Chairman of the UN Committee. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights can have extensions added it, but the original declaration cannot be changed. Therefore, we will continue to develop Human rights in America and across the globe. It will be a slow process as issues arise, but it is necessary to make this world a better place for all human beings.

Womens Democracatisation and Democracy in India

Womens Democracatisation and Democracy in India Problematising Democracatisation and Democracy in India Visions of political development demands/desires democracy and participation as innate to its discourse. Development in this sense thus needs democratic decisions making, informed and active civil society and inclusive political structure to reach its goal. In the Indian context the process of democratization with inclusive participation is desired through the 73rd- 74th amendment Act of Indian constitution, 1992. The Act fosters the strengthening of local government by creating opportunities for inclusive participation. It provides rights to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and women, the most marginalised in the hierarchical Indian society to participate in local government. Aiming to redress the gender and caste inequities the Act provides 33% reservation to the aforementioned categories to participate in local bodies. Post implementation of the Act that has now passed sixteen years, womens participation has been remarkably visible. This has recently resulted in Union cabinet approving a proposal of a constitutional amendment bill for increasing quota (50%) for women in Panchayats at all tiers (DNA 29th August, 2009). Media reports estimate more than 1.4 million women to occupy 2,52,000 Panchayat seats in future. It also states, at present out of the total elected representatives of panchayat numbering around 2.8 million, 36.87% are women. The Panchayat raj ministry report indicates a significant role played by reservation in bringing women into mainstream (ibid). According to this report, about four-fifth of all women representatives in panchayat elections got elected from reserved seats and about 83% of them entered politics through quota. Positive impact of entering politics and working as a panchayat raj functionary is visible as 79% of women representatives reported better self-esteem, 81% rep orted confidence building and 74% stated increase of decision-making abilities (ibid). Such a positive report gives a picture of better and inclusive governance that India is moving towards by applying gender and development approach. This step foresees increased active-participation of women in public sphere and their empowerment. However, we need to look critically at the political participation that is envisioned and the actual implementation. Would political participation also facilitate womens participation at decision-making? What would participation entail especially for Dalit women in terms of the dire consequences of their earnest assertion to realize their rights? What is the role that the 73rd Amendment Act envisages for Scheduled Caste and what is the role they end up playing? At the backdrop of increased efforts from the state for inclusive governance these are the lines of enquiry I intend to draw upon.   Dr. Ambedkar in the constituent Assembly, 1948 expressed his views on Indian villages What is a village but a sink of localism, a den of ignorance, narrow mindedness and communalism? (Mathew,G. Nayak,R.1996: 1). He questioned the why should the village become the locus of the political structure?(Palanithurai 2003: 27) Villages ruled by its dominant elites and upper caste have been very conservative and are based on traditional caste structure. Local self government thus would reinforce the villages as unites of elite captures exploiting the downtrodden at grassroots. Problem Statement/Justification/Purpose of research: Sixteen years of the passing of the 73rd constitutional amendment Act has brought about a remarkable change in local governance. The formal participation and involvement of Dalit and women has increased in local politics. At this juncture there is a need to undertake a reality check. Does formal participation means actual representation of Dalit women? Is the process of political participation inclusive and empowering? Does assertion of Dalit women leads to violence against them as they are not meant to participate actively? The paper looks at Dalit womens experiences of political participation in panchayat raj and its impact on their empowerment. My interest in the issue of Dalit women comes from a number of different sources. First, from a personal experience as inter alia a Dalit woman. I, see several facets to the Dalit womens experiences having been brought up with this identity and being from the same background. Secondly, experience of working with civil society organisations on Gender Justice and rights of Dalit women during the graduation as a part of field work, internship with CHR and volunteering in Dalit movement in India drew my attention to Dalit womens issues more prominently. During the process I met Dalit women activists from rural Maharashtra working at grass-roots and saw the constant problems they faced for they challenged the systemic oppression. The intersectionality of caste and gendered hierarchy that gets intensified as Dalit women enter the public sphere came forward as a new learning. The socio-cultural positioning and significantly the caste-class-gender interplay make Dalit womens experiences specific. I therefore wanted to document the experiences of Dalit women who enter the public sphere for the first time through formal mean such as political participation. Finally and most importantly my focus on Dalit womens political participation in Panchayat is because at policy level although the introduction of reservation to marginalised groups (Women, SCs, STs) at local body envisions inclusive democracy and better governance, in practice the local level politics is a crudest unit of oppression. Thus the need to study Dalit womens experiences of political participation arose from my own understanding and experience of the issue as well as Specificity of Being Dalit Women: Intersectionality Dalit women in India today number 80.517 million or approximately 48% of the total Dalit population, 16% of the total female population and 8% of the total Indian Population (Irudayam et al., 2006:1). Dalit women face discrimination on a daily basis, as a Dalit, as women and as a poor they are in extremely vulnerable position (National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights 2006:1). Dalit women make majority of unorganised labourer in urban settings and landless labourers in rural. Systemic violence against Dalit women can be seen as a mechanism to keep Dalit in a subordinated position. It is built in to the structure of the dominant society, which does not acknowledge the basic human rights of Dalit in general and Dalit women in particular. There is a clash between the expected role of Dalit women and the role they achieve because of the differential ways in which they negotiate their social status and gender norms. The new public role that the 1992 Act assigns them generates a clash betwee n traditional norms and the achieved political rights of Dalit women. Dalit women who have the ambition to occupy a political position frequently encounter resistance from the society. General discouragement becomes violence as soon as they show too much initiative, speak up and gain support from the larger community. Political participation for Dalit women is seen as a threat by the dominant caste groups. Dalit womens entry in politics is perceived as them securing entitlement to public resources. Strong Casteist and patriarchal biases against Dalit result in violent attacks, restraining Dalit women from exercising their rights through various mechanisms. There fore at academic level, I believe there is an urgent need to study the experiences of Dalit women participating in politics. It is at the village level that caste and gendered hierarchy plays out in crudest forms) With this premise I form objectives of my study the broad objective being: Study the experiences of Dalit womens right to political participation in rural Panchayat Raj system. I have following specific objective for the study: Explore the factors that restrain or facilitate participation of Dalit women in rural Panchayat Raj. Examine the impact of political participation on Dalit women in Panchayat Raj. Study the empowerment process of Dalit women through the political participation in Panchayat Raj. To suggest recommendations for effective participation of Dalit women in Panchayat Raj Research Question: Based on the objectives of study I formulated my research question for the enquiry What are the experiences of Dalit women participating in panchayat raj? Has the political participation impacted Dalit womens empowerment? What have been the attributing/restraining factors for the empowerment of Dalit women? What are the achievements of their political participation for themselves and for the Dalit community they represent and for the society in general? Feminist approach: Within feminist social science research, qualitative data, in particular in-depth interviews have  ´held a prominent place in the history of feminist inquiry ´ (Rabinowitz and Martin, 2001:44 in Kitzenger2003:126). Focus groups methods are also employed along with such talk about experiences. These are self-report methods. My choice of topic and feminist orientation required to utilize this method. This goes back to second wave of feminism (1970s) that emphasized the reclaiming and validation of womens experiences through listening womens voices (Kitzenger, 2003:125, Kirsch, 1999:4). The personal experiences of women have also been recognized in political context since then. Further Feminist social science researcher made it general to base their studies on womens voices and experiences. In fact feminist researches aimed at listening to womens different voices ´ (Gilligan, 1982 in Kitzenger, 2003:126) and  ´to address womens lives and experiences in their own terms, to create theory grounded in the actual experiences and language of women (DuBois, 1983: 108 in Kitzenger, 2003:126). With this historical reference I decided to apply feminist approach a most suitable analytic framework in my study of Dalit women sharing their experiences of Political participation. Methodology: This section methodology brings out the processes through which data is collected, collated, analyzed and interpreted. This is aimed at increasing the reliability of the study for the further validation as research is performed in order to be used. The study primarily adopts a qualitative approach as it helps to understand the subject of study through the experiences of the Dalit women. The paper focuses on the political participation and its impact on Dalit women.   It attempts to look critically at political participation of Dalit women and the trends of political participation at local level since the 73rd amendment Act, 1992. It does it so by documenting experiences of Dalit women and analyzing the complexities involved due to caste-class-gender interplay in the political participation process of Dalit women. These questions will only be answered by talking to Dalit women who have participated in the political processes. A systematic and comprehensive documentation of Dalit womens experiences at local governance is thus needed. For this purpose I decided to conduct a focused study based on qualitative primary data collected through field work. Methodology is one of the important sections of my research paper as the process of qualitative enquiry through field work has taught me more about my research topic along with the literature. After a considerable thinking process I decided that the method should be suitable to the research questions that I intend to address. As the research focuses on Dalit womens experiences the best method was to record their experiences through in-depth interviews. I intentionally kept the interviews unstructured as its being qualitative in nature, provides greater breadth. In-depth unstructured interviews allow researcher to explore a theme without being restricted to a series of questions. I being from a Dalit community and having worked on the Dalit womens issues came to my advantages as the discussions with Dalit women were focused at the same time gave scope to them to talk out their experiences without any hindrances. The rapport building and trust was achieved very easily. I lived in the f ield place with respondents and in special cases (there are three main cases) I stayed with the respondents for more than two days in order to understand and document the various dimensions involved in political participation of Dalit women. I used a question guideline that was formulated through the discussion with the expert in the field of research methodology and local governance[1] Sampling: The purposive (non-probability) sampling was utilized based on focus of my study to document and assess the experiences of Dalit womens political participation in local politics. Intentional and directed selection of Dalit women at grassroots politics was employed.   CHR, SPMM activists helped me identify data. Only one woman declined to give interview. The reason she declined itself interprets the problem faced by Dalit woman, I was informed by the activists that she Eighteen Dalit women in total were identified from three blocks of Beed district out of ten blocks and one block of Latur district. I selected ten out of eighteen Dalit women on the basis of sampling objectivity and representation of differences within Dalit women. Also, their diverse experiences of political participation were considered.   The sample was based on following interconnecting criteria. Panchayats at village level (Gram-Panchayats) newly elected Scheduled caste women President at village level SC women who had been Ex-Presidents Dalit women serving more than one tenure Dalit woman who tried but not succeeded in accessing panchayat post Cases where no-confidence motion was exercised on the Dalit women presidents Cases where abuse, beating up and atrocity inflicted Success-stories of active participation Finally 9 Dalit women from Beed District and one from Latur district of Marathwada region were selected. Three cases emerged as a main focus during my field work due to the special experiences of respondents. Though the sample was purposive I balanced sub-castes within scheduled castes by having respondents from Mahar and Mang (major scheduled castes of Maharashtra). Efforts were taken to include respondents with wide range of age in this study. Data collection: In the month of July, 2009 I visited the identified field place, Beed District, Marathwada region, Maharashtra. I already had established contacts with a human rights organization Campaign for Human Rights in Beed and its sister organization, Savitribai Phule Mahila Mandal (SPMM) which works on the issue of gender justice and womens empowerment through self help group.   With the consultation of Manisha Tokle (The founding secretary of SPMM) and Ashok Tangade (National secretary of CHR) I identified potential respondents from the selected blocks of Beed Distict. They also put me in contact with the field workers of CHR who handled these blocks. Manisha, Ashok and field workers gave me enriched information based on their field work experiences. Being well-versed with the area made them experts in the psycho-social behavior of people and the cultural challenges. Their guidance and discussions after interviews has been very important as something new would always emerge out of these d iscussions which I might not had thought during the interview. Their interpretations of the cases gave me crystallized views.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   CHR field activists from respective blocks accompanied me for every interview. They worked as informants. Their good rapports with the respondents, understanding of the region and the cultural meanings made my task easier. My own background being a Dalit woman was helpful in getting support from the respondents, establishing rapport and gaining their trust. In-depth unstructured interviews were recorded on the digital voice recorder. I maintained notes during and after every interview which helped me over come the problems in data analysis. The documentation of experiences of women was backed by my notes and suggestions from the field workers who discussed their interpretations after every interview. Informed consent: Before using the recorder I fully informed the respondents about the purpose of my study and the necessity to use the recorder Pictures of the respondents and the evidentiary documents wherever needed were taken for documentation. Interviews with expertise/ Key-Informants: I also consulted my ideas and paper with expertise as well as I interviewed key informants to gather their experiences in the field, on the issue FGD Area of study: The area of study was identified based on the characteristics of the region. The Marathwada region of the Maharashtra state was selected for the very peculiar reasons. First, Marathwada region being one of the most backward, feudal and atrocity prone regions of the Maharashtra state, second, a very special history of Dalit movement and violence against Dalits in the region and very importantly the right based work of Human rights organisations such as CHR, SPMM for the Dalit and womens upliftment. According to the first hand investigation and identification of cases I selected the following Blocks in Beed District and I took one exceptional case from Latur district that comes in Marathwada region itself.   1.1 Introduction The paper looks at how Dalit women, compared to women in general, are a different entity when they participate in Indias local self-governing institutions, known as Panchayat Raj Institutions. The 73rd Amendment of the Constitutional Act 1992, came into force in April 1993, providing an opportunity for Dalits and women – the most marginalised in the hierarchical Indian society – to participate in local-body elections at the village level. The Act, seeking to redress gender and caste inequities in rural India, provides 33% reservation to women, Scheduled Castes, and Scheduled Tribes in local bodies. Within this 33%, Dalit women are provided reserved seats on a rotating basis (meaning, every five or ten years the constituencies reserved for dalits and women are changed). After more than 15 years of the Act, Dalit and Dalit womens participation has been remarkably visible. However, we need to look critically at the term participation and what it entails—especially i n terms of the consequences dalit women face when they earnestly assert their rights. What is the role that the 73rd Amendment Act envisages for women and what is the real role they end up playing? There is a clash between the expected role of women and Dalit women because of the differential ways in which they negotiate their social status and gender norms. The new public role that the 1992 Act assigns them generates a clash between traditional norms and the achieved political rights of Dalit women. Violence exercised against women, and specifically against Dalit women, when they participate in political work, in indicative of the stratifications that obtain in the Indian social order. Vulnerably positioned at the bottom of Indias caste, class and gender hierarchies, Dalit women experience endemic gender and caste discrimination and violence as the outcome of severely imbalanced social, economic and political power equations (Irudayam et al 2006, pp.3). Within the oppressive social structure Dalit women become victim of violence if they transgress their rights and try to challenge their lower status. As gender violence, like any violence there are contexts, in relation to violence against Dalit women, the nature and dynamics of these contexts, relating to power and force, make them vulnerable and functions as a constrain to their agency and voice. This structural violence is an outcome of gender based inequalities perpetuated by patriarchal power relation also shaped, compounded and intensified by caste discrimination. Violence acts as a crucial social mechanism to maintain Dalit womens caste-gender subordination to men and that of the dominant caste men thereby subjugating both Dalit women and through them their community. Violence against women is gender-based and gender biased (Irudayam et al., 2006: 17) in the sense it the devaluates womens status in social order perpetuated by patriarchy and justified on the basis of perceived differences between male and female sexuality. In Indian context the caste ladder descending from purity to pollution, purest Caste men being on the top of the ladder whereas the polluted caste placed on the lower rung women are pushed even further down to the lowest rung. It works against their integrity as an individual; this is a violation of womens rights, such as their identity as a woman and dignity as an individual. Therefore violence in this sense means denial of rights as an individual and hindering womans development at various levels of integrity, as an Individual, as a woman in a family, a woman belonging to certain community and culture. Norwegian sociologist Johan Galtung defines Violence as avoidable insult to basic human needs; he identifies the basic human ne eds as survival, well-being, identity, and freedom (Galtung 1990 pp 292). 1.2 Being a Dalit and a Woman:   Caste-Gender Nexus Dalit women face collective and public threat or act of violence which discourage them from demanding their rights, it is effects of structures on individual agency that results in the gap between potential and actual fulfilment of rights. Retaliatory violence is exercised in response to dalit womens assertions for their rights by defying caste, untouchability norms or asserting their rights to cultural, economic and political resources. Dominant caste women tend to be subjected to violence more within the family due to strict control over their sexuality and freedom of movement again due to the caste factors, in order to preserve the purity and status of their caste. There have been movements through out the country making Dalits aware of their rights and also there have been feminist movements in India which took up issues of women subordination however looking at Dalit women as an imagined category (Rao, 2003: 1) and analysing the premises which prevent them from exercising their agency is yet the area of exploration. Imagining Dalit women as a different category as Bhagvat mentions is needed, because these feminist movements and Dalit movements lack a critical dimension from Dalit womans standpoint. Guru emphasises on this Point while he talks about politics of difference to bring out the specificity of Dalit womens subjugation. This subjugation is characterised by their experience of two distinct patriarchal structures a Brahmanical form of patriarchy that deeply stigmatizes Dalit women because of their caste status, as well as the control by Dalit men over the sexual and economic labour of their women (Guru in Rao 2003: 1). Political Participation for women means securing their entitlement to public resources, the economic resources they will avail as a result of participation for them and their community, the social and political benefits such as Development of the Dalit community in village, implementation of government schemes for Dalit more democratically due their representation.   With the strong patriarchal biases against women and marginalised Dalit, the dominant caste male members would not want these sections to equally enjoy the resources over which they had monopoly since long. There has a lot been written and debated around political participation of women and Dalits, conclusions are made that there has been fairly good representation in terms of number but the mere participation doesnt help these sections to exercise their rights. Nature of participation and effectiveness of the act has been assessed too, although with limited vision of looking only at the quantitative aspect of political participation. Very little has been studied on the gender-Caste nexus which denies the right of economic, political, social liberties to Dalit community as a whole and Dalit women within it. Political participation through Panchayat Raj Institution has given space for women to come out and talk about their grievances. The reservation has limited itself to space creation even though it implied the empowerment of women and there by making them equal partners in enjoyment of political, social, economical resource. It is seen that the oppressive social structures have reaffirmed their superiority by attacking women through new ways of oppression such as criminalisation of politics, starting right from the election process to making women mere proxies of their male counterparts. Violence in the process of Political participation to ensure womens non- participate and exercise their agency is a crucial aspect to study and to enhance policies which will cut across the structural inequalities of caste-class-gender and give dalit women an equal status. I want to study Violence experienced by women at different levels of participation and look at the specificity of violence experienced by Dalit women being trice oppressed due to their marginalised status as a Dalit, as a woman and as a lower class. Doing so my focus is at specificities of violence, Violence faced by women in general which is within their families and is built around the family prestige, there by controlling womens sexuality for the purity of their lineage and superior status. whereas dalit women not only face violence from their own family and community also from the dominant caste forces who ensure their superiority and control over resources by keeping the Lowest strata at its place who according to them are worth no social, economical and political rights. 1.3 Problem Statement According to the 2001 census there are 167 million Dalits (referred to the census as scheduled castes) in India, who remain vulnerable to discrimination, exploitation, and violence because of their socially marginal position assigned by Hindu social order. Indias hidden apartheid relegates Dalits to a life time of segregation and abuse. Caste-based divisions continue to dominate in housing, marriage, employment, and general social interaction—divisions that are reinforced through economic boycotts and physical violence (Hidden Apartheid 2007). The dalit woman faces Caste, Class and Gender discrimination because she is an untouchable, of a poor class and is a woman.   (National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights 2006) Dalit women in India today number 80.517 million or approximately 48% of the total Dalit population, 16% of the total female population and 8% of the total Indian Population (Irudayam et al., 2006). They make majority of unorganised labourer in urban settings and landless labourers in rural. They face discrimination on a daily basis, as a Dalit, as women and as a poor they are in extremely vulnerable position. Systemic violence against Dalit women can be seen as a mechanism to keep Dalit in a subordinated position. It is built in to the total structure of the dominant society, which does not acknowledge the basic human rights of Dalit in general and Dalit women in particular. The 73rd -74th Amendments, former being for rural local bodies and later for urban local councils brought about radical changes in womens representation in local bodies. The method of co-option where women are elected for the reserved seats on the consensus of the members of local panchayat body or nomination, Balwant Rai Mehta committee report proposed two women representatives each from Scheduled caste and scheduled tribe to be co-opted, these two procedures through which womens representation was ensured hitherto in the local bodies, has changed. Under the previous system, womens representation in local bodies was low and most women nominated to these bodies could hardly perform any functions. All the states except for Bihar (Santha, 1999) had conducted the elections to the local bodies in accordance with the 73rd-74th Amendments act, 1992 and almost one million women have been elected to the Panchayat Raj institutions and urban local bodies (I am focusing only at 73rd constitutio nal amendment act 1992 and PRIs and not on urban councils covered by the 74th Amendment, where he dynamics are different). This brought about a social change in terms of the traditional role of women; which used to be to take care of house hold chores and raise children and be inside the four walls all her life. Womens political empowerment finally seemed to be receiving some attention from both government and non-government organisations. Serious efforts are being made towards documenting womens political participation although it is limited to the Local self government. Questions of feasibility remain unanswered such as womens active participation, hidden domination (gender blindness) for instance in the budgeting process but also even in considering women as political entities, many treated women elected through reservation as a temporary members in Local body. The consequences of assertion resulting in discouragement, fragmentation and discrimination inflicting violence are yet to explore. Violence against Dalit women is utilised to deny them opportunities, choices and freedoms at multiple levels, undermining not only dalit womens dignity and self respect, but also their right to develop. An intersectional caste violence and atrocities against Dalit women occur at two levels: as an inherent part of the caste system whereby violence is utilised to reinforce caste norms and Dalit women are seen as legitimate target for all forms of violence, especially sexual violence, and when they transgress caste norms, such as caste endogamy or untouchability norms, or assert their rights over resources, public spaces or cultural spaces. In other words, the process of Dalit womens empowerment itself is perceived as a challenge to caste and patriarchal structures, and provides fertile ground for punitive violence committed by dominant castes. (Irudayam et al., 2006) Factors such as socio-cultural notion of womens role act as impediments in effective political participation hindering political empowerment of Women; When it comes to Dalit women these factors play much intense role and are specific for Dalit women due to their social status, denial and even no recognition to Dalit womens political rights result into violence. Cases such as denial from villagers for flag hoisting by Dalit women councillors on Independence Day, not being allowed to sit on the chair along with other members let alone talking in the meeting, Ignoring while they talk, use of abusing and discriminatory language, and humiliation on daily basis are experienced by most of the Dalit women who participate as elected members in local political arena. After encountering this reality one would question that would the thousands years old socially, culturally, economically and most importantly politically entrenched patriarchal caste system ensured the representation of disadvantaged groups in politics?   1.4 Rationale: Being a Dalit and a Woman My interest in the issue of Dalit Women comes from several different sources; first and foremost me being a Dalit woman. Being brought up with this identity and background, I got exposure to the problem faced by elders of the family and community. I feel my study would contribute in critically assess structural inequality causing Dalit suppression and specifically of the Dalit women in local politics. In the name of social discipline, social balance and to maintain this social balance, Dalits in general and Dalit wom